ENVIRONMENTAL   CONSTRAINTS  

 

TO 

 

PACIFIC   RIM   AGRICULTURE

 

 

 

 

COUNTRY  REPORT:      MALAYSIA

 

 

July  1995

 

 

 

 

 

This report is prepared for submission to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the Centre of Agricultural Policy Studies at Massey University (New Zealand).

 

 

Amitabha  Guha

 

 

 

 

Agricultural   Research   &   Advisory   Bureau   [ARAB]

 

Planters Grounds, 3½  mls Kajang-Serdang Rd, Selangor 43000, Malaysia.

Tel: +60 (03) 8736-8490             Fax: +60 (03) 8736-8491/92

Email: arabis@arabis.org                          www.arabis.org

ENVIRONMENTAL   CONSTRAINTS  

TO 

  AGRICULTURE   IN   MALAYSIA

 

C O N T E N T S

                                                                                                                   Page

 

 

1.    INTRODUCTION                                                                              5

 

       1.1       General

       1.2       TOR                                                               

       1.3       Malaysia's Agricultural / Natural Resource Base

       1.4       Population

       1.5       Malaysia's Economic Performance

                  

 

2.    IMPACT  OF   POPULATION & ECONOMIC  GROWTH

       AND ASSOCIATED POLICIES  ON  MALAYSIA'S

       NATURAL RESOURCE BASE                                                          9

 

       2.1       Competition for Land Resources

       2.2       Competition for Water Resources

       2.3       Industrialization and Competition for Land & Water

       2.4       Encroachment on Fragile Ecosystems

 

 

3.    IMPACT  OF   AGRICULTURAL  &  NON-AGRICULTURAL  ACTIVITIES

       ON  AGRICULTURE'S  RESOURCE BASE &  ENVIRONMENT 20

 

       3.1       Surface Runoff, Floods & Sedimentation

       3.2       Erosion & Soil Fertility

       3.3       Water Pollution & Chemical Residues

       3.4       Atmospheric Pollution

      

4.    CONSEQUENCES OF  ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

       AND  RESOURCE  COMPETITION   ON   MALAYSIA'S 

       AGRICULTURAL  OUTPUT                                                 21

 

       4.1       Annual, Perennial and Agroforestry Cropping

       4.2       Livestock

       4.3       Fisheries

 

 

5.    IMPACTS OF GOVT AGRICULTURE & ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES

       ON AGRICULTURES' RESOURCE BASE                           24

 

       5.1       Malaysia's Environmental Policies

       5.2       Implementation & Enforcement

       5.3       Effect of Malaysia's Agriculture & Environmental Policies on

                   Agricultural Productivity

       5.4       New Agriculture & Environmental Policies

       5.5       Expected Environmental Constraints on Agriculture Development

      

 

6.    CONCLUSION                                                                                  25

 

 

 

 

       References                                                                                          

 

 

       Acknowledgement

 

 

       Appendices:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The content of this report represents our interpretation and analysis of information generally available to the public or released by responsible individuals in the subject companies, but is not guaranteed as to accuracy or completeness. It does not contain material provided to us in confidence by our clients. Reproduction or disclosure in whole or in part to other parties shall be made upon the written and express consent of ARAB.

 

©1995 ARAB. All rights reserved.


 

 

ABBREVIATIONS   &   UNITS

 

 

ACRONYMS:

 

ASEAN           - All South East Asian Nations

ARAB              - Agricultural Research & Advisory Bureau

DOA                - Dept of Agriculture

DOF                 - Dept of Forestry

DOE                 - Dept of Environment

DID                  - Drainage & Irrigation Department

FRIM               - Forest Research Institute of Malaysia

MARDI           - Malaysian Agricultural Research & Development Institute

PORIM            - Palm Oil Research Institute of Malaysia

RRIM               - Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia

 

FFB                  - Fresh Fruit Bunch (of Oil Palm)

 

BOD                 - Biological Oxygen Demand

COD                 - Chemical Oxygen Demand

 

Ha = Hectare

Ac = Acre

 

kg = kilogram

t = tons

 

%      = percent

ppm  = parts per million

ppb   = parts per billion

 

Currency:        M$ or RM = Malaysian Dollar or Ringgit Malaysia

 

 

Units & Measures Used

 

       1 Ha                 =          2.47105 Ac

       1 Ha                 =          10,000 m2

       100 Ha             =          1 km2

 

       1 mm rainfall     =          10,000 liters water per hectare.

 

       Slope measure:  45 degrees = 100%

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Malaysia

 

 


 

1.   INTRODUCTION

 

 

 

1.1  General

 

 

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the Centre of Agricultural Policy Studies at Massey University (New Zealand) is currently undertaking a study on environmental constraints posed to agricultural production in the Pacific Rim countries.

 

This country report thus presents the findings of a desktop survey of the agro-environment situation in Malaysia and reports on the various environmental constraints posed to agriculture by the agricultural and non-agricultural sectors in the country.

 

 

 

1.2  Terms Of Reference (TOR)

 

The TOR has specified that the impacts of all activities (socio-economic, agricultural, non-agricultural) on the environment and Malaysia's agri resource base be covered, including the consequences on agricultural output.

 

In addition, the governments agricultural and environmental policies were to be described and their expected impact on agri inputs and outputs in the future were to be estimated and discussed. This includes the expected environmental constraints on agricultural development

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

______________________________________________________________________

The country report was authored by:  Amitabha Guha (Agri Economist),  ARAB. ©

1.3  Malaysia's Agri & Natural Resource Base

 

Malaysia stretches from latitudes 0o 60' N to 6o 40' N and from longitudes 99o 35' E to 119o 25' E.

 

The core of the Malaysian peninsula is mountainous with steep, heavily forested slopes rising from flat coastal and riverine land. Two thirds of the land lies above an altitude of 200m, with a maximum of 2100m.

 

The east Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak are transversed by relatively dissected highlands, with peaks generally less than 1800m in height. An exception would be Mount Kinabalu in Sabah (4102m) making it the highest peak in SE Asia. Much of the interior, particularly in Sarawak is densely forested. Interspersed amongst the mountain ranges are the lowlands. Alluvial plains run from the northeast to the southeast along the west coast of these two states.

 

Malaysia's agricultural / natural resource base includes the following:

 

MALAYSIA's   NATURAL  RESOURCE   BASE

 

   Region & Status

Area

mill Ha

% of Tot Land

Pen. M'sia

Sabah

Sarawak

TOTAL

NATURAL  FORESTS

 

 

 

 

 

  Permanent Forests

4.26

3.34

4.62

12.22

37

  Parks & Wildlife

0.44

0.38

0.23

1.05

3

  Stateland Forest

1.34

0.6

4.57

6.51

20

     TOTAL >

6.04

4.41

8.7

19.15

60

 

 

 

 

 

 

PLANTATIONS

 

 

 

 

 

  Wood Plantations

 

 

 

0.08

 

  Rubber

1.5

0.09

0.21

1.81

 

  Oil Palm

1.78

0.31

0.07

2.16

 

  Cocoa

0.14

0.2

0.06

0.39

 

TOTAL >

 

 

 

4.44

15

 

 

 

 

 

 

 Total AREA  >>

 

 

 

24.72

75

Total Land Area - M'sia

 

13.16

 

7.36

 

12.40

 

32.96

 

100

Source:  Stats on Commodities, Min of Primary Industries - June 1993

              (Note 1 sq km = 100 Ha)

 

Note that Stateland forests have been designed for land development and often go into plantations or other agriculture.

 

Climate   &   Rainfall

 

Due to its proximity to the equator, Malaysia is a humid tropical country and its climate is characterized by maritime monsoon winds which are subject to interference by mountains in Peninsula Malaysia, Borneo and Sumatra.

 

The Northeast monsoon season falls between November and January.  During these months heavy rainfall occurs over Malaysia, especially in the east coast of the peninsular, the northern areas of Sabah and south of Sarawak.  Less precipitation occurs progressively towards the west of the peninsular.  It is also the wettest and the coolest period throughout Malaysia.

 

The inter-monsoon period occurs for a duration of 2-3 months.  During this period, Malaysia experiences its hottest and driest days.  However heavy rainfall with high intensities occur in the northern parts of West Malaysia and east Sabah, between the months of June and October in the former and between the months of August and October in the latter.

 

The Southwest monsoon on the other hand predominates during the months of April and May in Peninsular Malaysia and in May and July in Sabah and Sarawak.  Significantly less rainfall is experienced compared to the Northwest monsoonal period.

 

The annual rainfall is about 990 billion m3.  Out of this, 360 billion m3 evaporates or transpires into the atmosphere.  A further 566 billion m3 forms surface run-off whilst the remaining 64 million m3 constitutes groundwater recharge.  The average annual rainfall is about 2,420 mm/yr in the peninsular, 2,630 mm/yr in Sabah and 3850 mm/yr in Sarawak.  However, the annual rainfall is more than 4,000 mm/yr the in mountainous areas of Sarawak, and more than 3,000 mm/yr in the northern half of Peninsular Malaysia and the coastal areas of Sabah and Sarawak. 

 

The monthly mean air temperature is 25oC to 28oC in the coastal lowlands and monthly relative humidity is between 75 to 90%.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  Existing Natural Forest in Malaysia & Indonesia

 

 

 

1.4  Malaysia's Population  and  Growth Rate

 

 

Malaysia's population base is as follows:

 

Malaysia's population includes in addition to 15.274 mill people in Peninsula Malaysia, 1.583 and 1.744 mill people from Sabah and Sarawak respectively. This puts Malaysia's population at 18.601 million as of 1992.

 

The crude birth rate in 1992 is estimated at 27.7; the crude death rate at 4.6 giving a crude rate of natural increase per thousand in the population of 23.1 i.e. a 2.31% population growth rate.

 

 

 

1.5  Malaysia's Economy  and  Economic Growth Rates

 

 

Malaysia's GDP grew by 13.3% and GNP by 13.8% in 1992 (current prices); or  GDP grew by 8.5% and GNP by 8.9% in 1992 (constant prices).

 

Malaysia's per capita GNP growth rate (current prices) in 1992 was 11.2% and stands at US$ 3022/capita (at current prices). The Exchange Rate is RM 2.5472 = 1 US$.

 

 

 

MALAYSIA -  GDP Contribution by Sector - 1992

(mill RM)

 

   Sector

GDP 1992

mill RM

%Share

 

 

 

Agriculture, Forestry / Fishing

14,996

16.02

 

 

 

Mining

8,190

8.75

Manufacturing

27,467

29.34

Construction

3,689

3.94

Electricity, Gas & Water

1,944

2.08

Transport, Storage & Communication

6,606

7.06

Wholesale Retail Trade

11,208

11.97

Finance, Insurance, Real Estate Serv

9,764

10.43

Govt Serv

9,457

10.1

Other Serv

1,976

2.11

 

 

 

Less:    Imputed Bank Serv Charges

5,477

5.85

Add:     Import Duties

3,804

4.06

 

 

 

GDP  (at market price)

93,624

100

 

 

 

Source:  Stats on Commodities, Min of Primary Industries - June 1993

 

 

 

2    IMPACT  OF  POPULATION  &  ECONOMIC  GROWTH

      AND   ASSOCIATED  POLICIES   ON   MALAYSIA'S

      NATURAL  RESOURCE  BASE

 

 

 

 

2.1  Competition  for  Land  Resources

 

 

Urbanization  and  Loss of Agricultural Land

 

Malaysia's fast growing population and industrialization of the economy from that based on commodities is causing the rural population to migrate to the towns and cities. In the rural villages in Peninsula Malaysia it is common to find those only within the age groups of 0-15 years and above 50 years i.e. with almost all the youths and working age adults having migrated to the townships and cities.

 

This has caused a severe shortage in the rural work force pool available to work Malaysia's oil palm and rubber plantations. As a result, Malaysian plantations have had to resort to importing Indonesian and Bangladeshi labour. However, this does not appear to have alleviated the problem significantly as plantation jobs are only a stepping stone to manual work in the more financially rewarding construction sector in the cities.

 

The net effect of this strong pace of urbanization / urban migration in the last two to three decades (now almost complete), is that the cities are forced to expand at very fast rates and this has stretched the infrastructure of the major cities. Plantation land of which there is no more available in the peninsula, is rapidly being converted for use by industry and for residential purposes. In fact it is now common to find plantation companies having land development / construction subsidiaries who effect the change in land use.

 

Such large scale conversion of land out of agriculture / plantation has resulted in some of the country's best land (from an agro-climatic standpoint) to be lost for agricultural production. For example, the rapid development in the southern state of Johor which has the best rainfall pattern for oil palm production, has led to a decrease in the states productive oil palm hectarage.

 

However, the plantation companies have begun opening new land areas in the east Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak (in the island of Borneo) where land is more abundant. However, as population is quite sparse in these states, the plantations would have to resort to importing labour from Indonesia (particularly Kalimantan).

 

 

 

2.2  Competition  for  Water Resources

 

As Malaysia is situated close to the equator thus largely experiencing rainfall throughout the calendar year, water is not a major limitation to agri output per se. The average annual rainfall is about 2,420 mm/yr in the peninsular, 2,630 mm/yr in Sabah and 3850 mm/yr in Sarawak.  However, the annual rainfall is more than 4,000 mm/yr the in mountainous areas of Sarawak, and more than 3,000 mm/yr in the northern half of Peninsular Malaysia and the coastal areas of Sabah and Sarawak.  Only in the very northern parts of the peninsula is rainfall in a few months quite low for minimal agricultural productivity levels i.e. where rainfall is less than 150mm/month for 2 or more months. Even so, sufficient water is available for the cultivation of the less water demanding crops such as rubber.

 

Freshwater is used for domestic and industrial water supply, irrigation, hydropower, fisheries /aquaculture, mining, and recreation.

 

The estimated domestic and industrial water demand of 1.3 billion m3 in 1980 is projected to reach 4.8 billion m3 by the year 2000. Irrigation water demand is expected to increase from 7.4 billion m3 in 1980 to 10.4 billion m3 by the year 2000.

 

In relation to the above demand for water, it should be noted that the annual rainfall is about 990 billion m3.  Out of this, 360 billion m3 evaporates or transpires into the atmosphere.  A further 566 billion m3 forms surface run-off whilst the remaining 64 million m3 constitutes groundwater recharge.  Thus human competition for water resources in not likely to impact significantly on the environment or agriculture's resource base in the foreseeable future.

 

 

 

2.3 Industrialization  and  Competition   for  Land & Water

 

The rapid industrialization of the economy in the last decade has led to rapid urban expansion and usage of agricultural land on the outskirts of the cities.

 

However, as water is relatively plentiful, the industrialization of the economy has not imposed any limitations on agricultures' use of this resource.

 

 

 

2.4  Encroachment  on  Fragile Ecosystems

 

The unavailability of land for new plantation development in Peninsula Malaysia has led to peat areas being cultivated with oil palm and to a much lesser degree, with pineapples.

 

The development of intercity road systems and highways has sometimes necessitated that routes pass through natural forest reserves. Currently in the planning / proposal stage is a upland highway linking the 3 hill resorts in the peninsula - Genting Highlands, Fraser’s Hill and Cameron Highlands. This upland road is to cut across the central hill range which is under virgin forest to connect the resorts. It is expected that by its construction, upland land would be opened for agricultural production. Environmental groups in Malaysia have opposed its development on the grounds that it would lead to excessive soil erosion and loss of the natural tropical forest.

 

In July 1995, a landslide on the Genting Highland slopes led to the deaths of over 20 people traveling to the hilltop resort. This disaster was attributed to rainfall water being retained / absorbed by shallow topsoil’s on the hills which caused the topsoil to turn into a mudflow. Following this incident, the government plans to reconsider the upland highway project.

 

Another project also being proposed is a highway linking Serdang to Puchong in the outskirts of KL that would run through a state forest reserve.

 

 

Urban expansion has recently (since 1990) begun to encroach on the more hilly areas of the capital and has led to the building of high rise condominium apartments on rather steep slopes. The 1993 collapse of the Highland Towers apartments that was located at the base of a hill whose sides were cut without satisfactory retention walls resulted in the death of over 48 people. The disaster was attributed to clearing of the vegetation in the upper hillslopes, water accumulation within the hill, and the blockage of drainage channels.

 

 

 

3    IMPACT  OF  AGRICULTURAL & NON-AGRICULTURAL

      ACTIVITIES  ON  MALAYSIA'S  AGRICULTURAL

      RESOURCE  BASE  &   ENVIRONMENT

 

 

 

3.1  Surface Runoff,  Floods  &  Sedimentation

 

Sedimentation by clearing of large tracts of land either for plantation development, road construction or urban expansion is a major cause of flash floods as rivers are quickly choked under the intense tropical rainstorms experienced in Malaysia.

 

Inundation damages townships, villages and annual croplands particularly along stretches of rivers.  The recorded maximum flood damage area in Peninsular Malaysia stands at 15,300 km2 with 2.5 million people being affected; 2,700 km2 in Sabah with 82,000 people affected; and 111,000 km2 in Sarawak with 134,000 people affected.  In toto, flood prone areas amounted to 29,000 km2 in 1982.  The average flood damage per year has been estimated to be approximately M$ 100 million. (JICA, 1982). However, it is not easy to estimate what proportion of this is directly due to agricultural and/or industrial activities per se.

 

Note that although surface runoff seems to be abundant, there is often a water deficit in regions with major water demand due to the fact that there is a wide variation in rainfall over time and space.

 

Surface runoff becomes very low in the dry season while it is mostly running to waste during the wetter months.  Average annual runoff is about 147 billion m3 in Peninsular Malaysia, 113 billion m3 in Sabah and 306 billion m3 in Sarawak.  Floods generally occur during the northeast monsoon and the southeast monsoon period in the southern part in September and in the northern part of the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia in October.

 

 

The clearing of land particularly through opening of jungle land under the Malaysian climate-vegetation ecosystems leads to marked changes in the hydrological balance. It has been estimated that during storms, runoff from catchments with plantation crops (oil palm and rubber) during a period of 13 months was twice that of a similar area under jungle, while the low flows were halved (Daniel & Kulasingam, 1974). Tang et al (1979) showed that in an extensive study area in Kelantan, sediment yield under undisturbed forest conditions was 100 m3/km2/year. This increased to 300m3/km2/year when 30-40% of the catchment was under logging and dramatically rose to 2500 m3/km2/year when the entire catchment was mechanically logged.

 

 

3.2  Erosion & Soil Fertility

 

Since in Malaysia agricultural activities are predominantly (area wise) plantation based, the discussion here will be centered on soil fertility and erosion caused by plantation activities.

 

The establishment of a plantation from forested or cleared areas often involves modifications to the terrain (for example terracing) in addition to the establishment of estate roads and drainage systems. This results in considerable soil disturbance and loss of relatively nutrient rich top soil - already very thin in a tropical forest environment. Note that tropical soils (oxisols and ultisols) are relatively poor nutritionally compared to the soils of temperate climes. This erosion thus caused is accentuated by the practice of burning all felled trees. Annual soil loss in oil palm estates can be as high as 14.9 tonnes/Ha/yr in areas of average slope of 9% (4.5 degrees). Greater soil loss occurs during clear cutting operations before the establishment of a stable cover crop following replanting. Ling et al (1979) showed that within a period of one year after land clearing, total soil loss was only 10-11 tons/Ha whereas under bare soil conditions, losses of  79 tons/Ha were recorded - see table below.

 

If  natural forest on slopes less than 2 degrees is cleared and converted to plantation, the erosion rate will be between 400 to 900 tons/km2 (or 4 to 9 tons/Ha),  except for Sarawak, which has a rate of 1,600 tons/km2 (or 16 tons/Ha). Note that if natural forest on slopes less than 6 degrees is destroyed, the erosion rate will increase to between 1000 to 3000 tons/km2  (or 10 to 30 tons/Ha).  (Slope: 45degrees = 100%).

 

Mean Runoff and Soil Loss

under different ground cover vegetation

Treatment

Runoff

(mm)

Runoff

% Rainfall

Soil Loss

tons/Ha/yr

 

Bare

236

15

79

 

Legumes covers

70

5

11

 

Natural Covers

61

3

10

 

 

Source: Ling et al (1979)

           1mm = 10,000 liters/Ha

 

Because of the increase in soil water loads during the immaturity period of the new plantings, and thus in erosion rates,  natural forest buffer zones alongside water bodies to act as silt traps and as a water catchment area is being recommended, as has the stacking of felled vegetation (without burning). Furthermore, legume cover crops could be established to quickly increase transpiration rates.

 

The plantation practice of planting nitrogen fixing covers (legumes) also results in a considerable buildup of organic matter and a reconstitution of the lost top soil. Furthermore, it has been made illegal under the country's environmental laws to burn felled vegetation (or other materials) in the open. As such, agricultural practices has
changed in recent years to accept a "No-Burn" policy - i.e. felled/cleared vegetation is allowed to rot and allow for nutrient recycling (in spite of the extra expense this entails).

 

 

As oil palm (planted on over 2.5 million Ha) is a heavy nutrient demanding crop requiring about 7 kg of fertilizers per palm (135 palms/Ha) or approx 1 ton of fertilizer per Ha, there is a considerable amount of soluble fertilizers lost through leaching and/or runoff. Since, nitrogen is an important input (0.5 - 0.7 kg N/palm), nitrate losses are believed to be quite high. However, as phosphorus inputs are largely in the form of the partially soluble Rock Phosphate, phosphate contamination of water ways is not expected to be very significant in as much as algae growth is stimulated and the BOD/ COD quality parameters of the water worsens.

 

As a case reference, the mean annual nutrient loss from an oil palm plantation in the Linggi River Basin was estimated to be 132 tons Nitrogen and 43 tons Phosphorus.

 

 

 

Nutritional Impact of  Forest Removal and Oil Palm Plantation Establishment

 

Nutrient cycling in the natural forest system is closed i.e. without any leakages; abscised leaves falling to the forest floor and decomposing, followed by the released nutrients being reabsorbed by the roots of the standing trees. Since the humic rich top soil is where most of the nutrients are held in the whole soil profile, any losses of the top soil would lead to marked leakage of nutrients from the whole nutrient cycle.

 

The conversion of the forest to oil palm causes such a change in the nutrient cycle with leakages being introduced in the form of nutrients exported in the FFB's harvested, and in accelerated leaching and runoff of nutrients as the top soil is lost. However the planting the legume cover crops can effectively reconstitute the top soil.

 

In an oil palm planting, nutrients are supplied / recycled to the palms from the base soil reserves, the addition of fertilizers, and from that recycled when the base fronds are pruned and left to decompose in the field.  Nutrients are however lost from the system through FFB harvest exported and through leaching / runoff.

 

To maintain the nutrient balance of the oil palm so as to maintain maximum productivity levels, the following has to be done:-

- the amount of nutrients exported through harvested FFB has to be replaced by fertilizers,

- the amount of nutrients lost through leaching & runoff has to be replaced by fertilizers,

- the amount of nutrients immobilized by the palms has to be replaced by fertilizers if soil reserves of the nutrient in question is low or marginal,

- corrective fertilizer application should be done if the nutrient status of the palms is less than optimal (as indicated by foliar analysis).

 

 

Amount  of  Fertilizers Required  to  Compensate  for

 Nutrient  Removal  &  Immobilization  in  the Oil Palm

 

Fertilizer    (kg/palm/yr)

S/A

TSP

MOP

KIES

TOTAL

 

 

 

 

 

 

Removed:  25 tons  FFB/Ha/yr

2.4

0.42

1.19

0.88

4.66

Immobilized

0..95

0.07

0.89

0.42

2.29

  > Tot Removed & Immobilized

3.35

0.49

2.08

 1.30

6.95

Recycled in Fronds

3.29

0.42

1.32

1.29

6.32

 

S/A = Sulphate of Ammonia (21% N),   TSP = Triple Super Phosphate (20% P),   MOP = Muriate of Potash, KCl (53% K),  KIES = Kieserite (20% Mg). 

Source:  Agri Research & Advisory Bureau [ARAB].

 

 

 

Rubber (and cocoa), although cultivated on a significantly large scale, does not require very heavy fertilizer inputs as that required by the oil palm, and as such the impacts on the environment from nutrient losses is not as serious.

 

 

 

3.3  Water Pollution & Chemical Residues

 

 

Siltation has reduced the discharge capacity of many rivers in the Peninsula, particularly in the west coast thus reducing the rivers ability to dilute out polluting materials. Most of the major rivers are silty. Although the control of other kinds of pollution has been quite successful, soil erosion and river siltation remains a critical problem. Increases in BOD of more than 5 mg/l is on the rise in many rivers in both west and east Malaysia. High concentrations of suspended solids in some rivers (i.e. more than 500 mg/l) are caused by logging and forest clearing activities, road and building construction etc.

 

Under the 1991 Annual River Water Quality Monitoring Program by DOE, 87 major rivers were monitored and a total of 2967 samples from 555 monitoring sites were collected.

 

In 1991, the river water quality in general was found to be in a deteriorating state compared with 1990.  Although the number of very polluted rivers had decreased from 7 in 1990 to 6 in 1991, a number of the previously clean rivers had become slightly polluted.  The six very polluted rivers are Sg. Sepang, Sg. Duyung, Sg. Buloh, Sg. Kelang, Sg. Ibai and Sg. Juru. Of the remaining 81 rivers, 44 were found to be slightly polluted and 37 rivers clean.

 

All polluted rivers were found to be in Peninsular Malaysia, whereas the majority of rivers in Sabah were clean with the exception of 2 being slightly polluted.  Rivers in Sarawak had shown a gradual decline towards 'slightly polluted' i.e. from 5 out of 20 rivers in 1990 to 8 rivers in 1991.

 

The deterioration of water quality had also been observed in a 5-year trend (1986-1991).  Ammoniacal nitrogen had shown a deterioration rate of 1.95% in 1991, which had increased from 1.23% in 1990.  Suspended solids had also increased its deterioration rate from 0.69 % in 1990 to 1.72% in 1991.  However, BOD had improved slightly from 0.21% in 1990 to 0. 11 % in 1991.

 

From this it can be inferred that major contributors to river pollution in the urban areas of Malaysia in 1991 were sewage and animal wastes, with silt ranking second in the line.

 

 

From 1991 monitored data, greater number of non-compliances of heavy metals were indicated by river situated in the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia, due to more extensive land use and industrialization.

 

An assessment of water pollution using the community structure and species distribution of diatoms by Nather Khan (1990) revealed that the number and species variation reduced drastically at grossly polluted stations.

 

 

Examples / Incidences:

 

Early in January 199 1, a local newspaper (NST, 1991) reported the contamination of the Durian Tunggal dam in Malacca with toxic effluents from a rubber factory.  The semi treated effluents were accidentally discharged into the Malacca River which feeds the public water supply reservoir.

 

Sources of pollution in the Johor River basin occur especially in the upper reaches of the estuary.  The principle contaminants comprise ammonia, nitrate and iron.  The townships of Bandar Tenggara and Kota Tinggi form major contributors due to the absence of adequate sewerage and drainage systems.  Other sources include biodegradable effluents from rubber factories and oil palm mills, domestic and industrial effluents and surface runoff.

 

Pollution sources in the Sungai Selangor and Sungai Langat basins, include sewage and sullage, mining discharges containing heavy loads of suspended matter and rubber and oil palm mill effluents that contain high concentrations of non- biodegradable and organic and inorganic impurities.  There are also numerous factories and processing plants for detergents, oils, dyes etc. in these basins.

 

In February 1992, pollution from nearby housing estates destroyed the fish fauna in, the Taman Jaya lake in Petaling Jaya (NST, 1992).  Pollution also caused the death of thousands of fish that composed the biota of the Shah Alam lake.  It was speculated that the pollutants from nearby restaurants had seeped into the lakes.

 

 

 

{-  Conservation  of  Water Quality

 

Conservation of water quality is achieved, in part, by the reduction of pollution loads discharged into the river systems.

 

The self-purification mechanism of a river is considered inadequate if the BOD concentration in the river is more than 5 mg/liter.  Odour occurs if its concentration is more than 110 mg/liter.  Pretreatment becomes necessary if the BOD concentration in raw water reaches levels higher than 2 mg/liter and 5 mg/liter for domestic water and industrial water respectively.  For organic pollution abatement, improvements in the purification system of effluents from palm oil mills, rubber factories and sewage treatment systems becomes a prerequisite.  Intake for domestic (drinking) purpose should be upstream of river stretches.     }

 

 

The main sources of waterway pollution are discussed below.

 

 

3.3.1  AGRICULTURAL  EFFLUENTS

 

The main traditional sources of single source water pollution in the rural areas has been the effluents spilt into water ways (rivers) by the oil palm mills and rubber processing factories. (Non-point water pollution by agricultural activities is mainly from leaching/runoff of fertilizers used in the oil palm and rubber plantations).

 

The palm oil mills and the rubber processing industries are the two major agro-industries which produce and discharge enormous amounts of wastes into water courses. Untreated or treated effluents from both facilities are discharged into streams/rivers.

 

 

a. Palm Oil Mill

 

The effluent generated from palm oil mills creates a major  impact on the environment, if proper care is not taken in treating the effluent prior to discharging.   The most significant impact on water quality is imposed by the discharge of effluent into water bodies. The average BOD of the effluent produced from a palm oil mill is 22,000 mg/litre  and the volume of  effluent produced from processing 1 ton of FFB is 1.4m3 (1400 liters).  On this basis, the BOD/ton FFB produced is 30 kg.  For a 20 ton FFB/hour mill operating an 8 hour shift a day, the daily BOD effluent discharge would thus be 4800 kg/8-hr shift or 9600 kg/16-hr shift. This amount of discharge will have a significant impact on the quality of low volume and slow moving / stagnant water bodies if not treated prior to release into the environment. The population equivalent of the waste generated (900 kg BOD/day) is 0.2 million people. However, in the more recent years, appropriate mitigating measures have been instituted and certain standards have to be followed as per requirement of the Dept of Environment (DOE) with respect to the quality and rate of the effluent discharged into water courses.  Note that the processing of oil palm FFB requires high amounts of water consumption and this is sourced from nearby rivers. The water consumption by a 20-25 ton/hour or higher capacity palm oil mills for processing the FFB's ranges from 1.5 to 2.0 m3/ton FFB.

 

Thus an oil palm mill is required to invest in an appropriate effluent treatment system, and is encouraged to dispose of all solid wastes (fiber, shell and empty fruit bunches) which have high calorific and agronomic value without burning i.e. by recycling.  The control of smoke emissions from the mill is also now necessary.

 

Untreated effluents from palm oil mills have a high BOD (about 22,000mg/1).  In 1980, there were 133 palm oil mills in Peninsular Malaysia, 10 palm oil mills in Sabah and 4 palm oil mills in Sarawak. In 1980, the DOE reported that 63 mills had applied biological 'treatment and oxidation pond systems, 39 mills disposed off their effluents on to land and 2 mills used chemical treatment systems.  


 

 

b. Rubber  Processing  Factories

 

The major raw material inputs in rubber processing are cup lumps, tree laces, sheet cuttings, latex and rubber sheets. In addition, various chemicals are used at different stages of processing. For example, ammonia is used as a latex preservative /anticoagulant; DAHP is used to free magnesium and act as a stabilizer, while lauric acid, formic acid and sulphuric acids are used as coagulants.

 

Effluent from rubber and latex processing factories include wash water, small amounts of uncoagulated latex and serum containing small quantities of protein, carbohydrates, lipids, carotenoids, salts etc.  Since large amounts of acid are used in the processing, the effluent is usually acidic and contains high proportions of total suspended solids and dissolved solid, and nitrogen.

 

In 1980, there were 206 rubber factories in Peninsular Malaysia, 3 rubber factories in Sabah and 3 rubber factories in Sarawak with processing capacities of higher than 5 tons/day, producing conventional grades of Standard Malaysian Rubber (SMR) and Latex Concentrate.  The BOD concentration in untreated effluent was 1500 mg/l for the former and 2340 mg/l for the latter (JICA, 1982).

 

 

 

 

3.3.2  INDUSTRIAL   EFFLUENTS

 

The recent rapid industrialization of Malaysia's economy has led to the construction of a large number of factories without the necessary waste treatment facilities being built. This has resulted in a number of incidents of which the biggest scare was caused by the dumping in early 1995 of large amounts of Potassium Cyanide on the coast of Tioman Island - a popular island beach resort. The incident led to the death of many fishes in the area and affected the livelihood of a number of fishermen.

 

The Government had however planned the construction of a waste treatment facility for toxic and hazardous wastes and a private company / consortium was given the go ahead to build it in the state of Negri Sembilan. However, the company involved has delayed its construction much to the annoyance of the Malaysian Govt.

 

 

 

 

3.3.3  COASTAL  &  MARINE  WATER  POLLUTION:

Coastal / Marine and Freshwater

 

Ships passing through the heavily used Straits of Malacca have often been caught desludging and fined heavily by the DOE under recently strengthened enforcement.

 

Incidences of freshwater pollution (other than from sedimentation and non-point nutrient runoff/leaching and mill/factories) has been reported from time to time mainly to recreation lakes near residential areas. However, these incidents are more "accidental" in nature and occur sporadically.

 

 

3.3.4   LIVESTOCK  POLLUTION

 

As animal husbandry is not  a major activity in Malaysia, pollution from such activities is of relative unimportance although where pig farms are located, contamination of water ways with urine and silage leachates is often quite severe (although over a very small area). The discharges waste water contains high BOD, COD, suspended solids and ammoniacal nitrogen.

 

-       Wastewater  Treatment  Systems   in   Factories & Mines

 

Effluent characteristics of manufacturing industries vary according to the production process.  A survey by the DOE in 1978 revealed that out of 45 factories in Perai and Butterworth, 26 factories had no purification system and no data was available for 9 factories.  Only 10 factories had some purification facilities which are regarded to be pretreatment systems only. 

 

In 1980, DOE surveyed 110 factories in Peninsular Malaysia.  Only 28 had purification system, 55 factories had no treatment facilities and no information was available from the remaining 13.

 

There were 889 tin mines in Peninsular Malaysia in 1980.  They constitute the major source of sediments due to overflow of water from tailing areas and collapse of mining bund during heavy rainfall/flood.  The Mining Enactment constitutes that the allowable quantity of suspended solids in mining effluents into a river is 11,400 ppm, but the Inspector of Mines guideline value is 5,700 ppm.

 

 

 

 

3.4  Atmospheric  Pollution

 

The burning of land under shifting cultivation practices in Borneo (both the Malaysian and I'sian sections of Borneo) has often resulted in a prolonged haze occurring over the Malaysian peninsula, and in severe cases (such as in 1994), also over Singapore and large areas of Sumatra and Java in Indonesia. This cross border pollution occurs mainly during the dry season when shifting cultivation practices in Kalimantan (Indonesia) cause peat / coal / forest areas to catch fire and smoke for months. As KL is situated in the Klang Valley, the dust / haze often overhangs until there is sufficient wind / rainfall to clear it during this times.

 

In 1994, the forest fires in Indonesia started in August and spread during the transitional monsoon period in September and October which later caused widespread haze in the region. Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei and Singapore were blanketed with the haze for nearly 2 months resulting in poor visibility, frequent flight rescheduling, an increase in asthma and other respiratory disease cases and affected the photosynthesis process of plants due to low light levels. Note that East Kalimantan and South Sumatra are covered with peat soils and underground coal formations which could easily aggravate fires once exposed to sunlight as a result of slash-and-burn activities carried out by nomadic communities (New Straits Times June 4 1995).

 

 

Industrial pollution still takes place although not as blatantly as before as DOE enforcement powers have been strengthened. Irresponsible factories often emit their smoke emissions at night to avoid detection although DOE is taking steps to control the situation.

 

Urban pollution other than that originating from factories is mainly caused by vehicular traffic. The use of catalytic converters is not yet mandatory by law and vehicular pollution is currently controlled sporadically by traffic policemen. The main vehicle types responsible for smoke pollution are trucks/lorries, buses and other heavy vehicles. With the major urban centres becoming choked with traffic, Malaysian road users are often directly subjected to exhaust fumes. Note that car sales continue to increase at very high rates under the current favourable economic climate.

 

 

 

4.   CONSEQUENCES  OF  ENVIRONMENTAL  DEGRADATION

      AND   RESOURCE COMPETITION  ON  MALAYSIA'S

      AGRICULTURAL  OUTPUT

 

 

 

 

4.1  Annual, Perennial & Agroforestry Cropping

 

Although it is generally acknowledged and accepted that land degradation limits the productivity of agricultural land, the quantum is difficult to estimate as the relationships between the various agro-climatic factors on yield of many crops are not completely understood. For example, there is no clear cut research findings to indicate that a certain level of erosion on plantation land has caused a drop in yields to a quantifiable extent. Note that air pollution as yet has shown no evidence of affecting crop output.

 

Of more significance on the quantitative output of Peninsula Malaysia's agro-economic activities is the constraint imposed by urban and industrial competition for land in the Peninsula. Thus any increase in crop output would have to come from increase in productivity through more intensified use of inputs.

 

The highest financial returns that can currently be generated from land used for agriculture is currently about RM 4,000 to 7,000 /Ha/year - and this is achievable when using the land for oil palm cultivation only. No other crop cultivatable on such a large scale can currently match the returns of oil palm. Based on this financial returns over a 25 year crop lifetime, the value of the land would be about RM 20,000 to 30,000/Ha (assuming a 12% discount rate).

 

As long as there are other non-agricultural uses for the land that exceeds the above monetary return levels, there is going to be economic pressures for agricultural land to be converted out of agriculture use.

 

However, note that in E. Malaysia, where there is no severe land shortage, output can be increased through bringing new (forested or deforested) land into cultivation.

 

 

 

4.2  Livestock

 

The output of livestock is small in Malaysia and is generally not affected by pollution.

 

 

 

4.3  Fisheries

 

Water pollution (freshwater or coastal) poses a threat to the output of this sector and has to be guarded against. The 1995 potassium cyanide scare in Tioman Island is a reminder of what could happen if preventive measures are not taken.

 

 

5.   IMPACTS   OF   GOVERNMENT'S  AGRICULTURE  &

      ENVIRONMENTAL  POLICIES  ON  AGRICULTURES'

      RESOURCE  BASE

 

 

 

5.1  Malaysia's  Environmental  Policies

 

 

Environmental  Policies

 

In 1974, the Environmental Quality Act was legislated and amended in 1985. It encompasses the prevention, abatement, control of pollution and enhancement of the quality of the environment. The Department of Environment (DOE) is the government agency charged with enforcing the Act. However, enforcement of the act really began when EIA procedures were introduced on April 1 1988 and made a mandatory requirement for particular projects or "prescribed activities". Such activities include agriculture (of or more than 500 Ha), drainage and irrigation, land reclamation, fisheries, forestry, housing, industry, infrastructure, airports, ports, mining, petroleum, dams and man-made lakes, power generation, quarries, railways, transportation, resort and recreational development, waste treatment and disposal, and water supply.

 

Other relevant environmental legislation / provisions enacted over the years were:-

 

       Land Conservation Act of 1960

       The Forest Enactment of 1934

       The Forest Rules of 1935

       The Water Enactment of 1935

       The Mining Enactment of 1935

       Environmental Quality Act 1974 (Amended 1985)

       Street, Drainage and Building Act (Amended 1978)

       Provisions under Standard Logging Permits

 

These legislation lay down procedures and restrictions to ensure orderly use of Malaysia's natural resources. They were all aimed at minimizing adverse impacts to the environment by control of runoff, sedimentation of rivers etc. There are several deficiencies in some of these acts, but these do not appear as important as enforcing the existing legislation.

 

 

5.2  Implementation  &  Enforcement

 

At present, institutional problems such as too many agencies with specific and overlapping functions are involved in many aspects of the management of water, soil and other natural resources.

 

For example, Logging / Deforestation monitoring and control comes under the purview of the Forestry Dept (DOF) while Water Management comes under the Drainage and Irrigation Dept (DID).

 

While Air Pollution control comes under the jurisdiction of the DOE, should air pollution arise from land clearing activities, an overlap with the Forestry Dept (DOF) or Agriculture Dept (DOA) occurs.

 

Thus as no single agency has the responsibility or the resources to cope with the complex interrelationships that take place in the "environment", the solution may have to rely on effective coordination between the agencies concerned. Non-point pollution such as sedimentation, erosion, nutrient leaching/runoff, excessive water loads causing surface wash/ flooding are basically due to disturbance of the watershed.

 

However recently, the enforcement capabilities of the various agencies have been beefed up and cooperation between the agencies is slowly improving. This has partly arisen from increased public awareness of the importance maintaining a "balanced" eco-system, especially after the various disasters attributed to environmental degradation in recent times.

 

 

5.3  Effect of  Malaysia's Agriculture & Environmental Policies  on

       Agricultural  Productivity          

 

Malaysia's Agriculture Policy has recently begun to shift away from individual farming systems towards corporate cultivations systems to benefit from economies of scale, more efficient management, better integration with downstream industries etc. It is hoped that this would lead to higher productivity and more efficient use of the countries' natural resources - particularly land and water. Note that a major factor driving this policy shift is the scarcity of rural labour in the face of rapidly rising incomes obtainable in the urban settings.

 

The countries' Environmental Policies affect agriculture mainly in so far as it specifies that a "no-burn" system be followed at replanting and where effluent treatment facilities be installed at palm oil mills and rubber factories.

 

As crop output and inputs such as fertilizers are freely traded and are not subsidized (or subject to import tariffs), agricultural production polices has not led by and large, to any great extent, to misallocation of resources or to uneconomic production of commodities in the country.

 

 

 

5.4              New  Agriculture  &  Environmental  Policies

 

Other than the shift away from individual farming systems towards corporate cultivations systems, there is not expected to be a radically new agriculture policy in the country.

 

However, environmental policies are expected to be tightened with more intensified monitoring of lands and the river and coastal ecosystems. Furthermore, development projects would have to comply with increasingly stringent environmental guidelines.

 

A proposal by Malaysia to draw up a joint strategy with Indonesia and other ASEAN member countries to overcome transboundary air pollution has recently been received favorably. So far this has led to the suggestion to set up an ASEAN fire fighting team to control forest fires in the region. Other than this there is as yet almost no effective control measures to combat transboundary air pollution on a coordinated scale between the various ASEAN member countries.

 

Malaysia has also taken steps to control the desludging activities of ships passing through the Straits of Malacca on the west coast as well as on the east cost.  Foreign registered vessels have been detained and fined for polluting Malaysia's coastal waters in the recent past.

 

 

 

5.5  Expected  Environmental Constraints on  Agricultural Development

      

There are currently no expectations of additional environmental constraints being imposed on Agricultural Development in the country.

 

 

 

6.   CONCLUSION

 

 

Since the introduction of EIA procedures in 1988, there have been seven detailed reports on projects. The EIA's were on the Tioxide plant in Terengganu, the Linggiu Dam in Johor, Malayan Titanium in Perak, Sungai Buloh Township in Selangor, Penang Hill Development, the Central Industrial Waste Treatment and Disposal Facility in Bukit Nenas, and the Kuala Lumpur International Airport at Sepang. Thus far, only the Penang Hill Development project was cancelled based on its EIA report.

 

In 1995, the EIA reports on the proposed Bakun Hydroelectric Project in Sarawak was released. Billed as the largest hydroelectric project in SE Asia, one which will flood an area of the size of Singapore, the impacts on the state's land and environmental resource base can only be significant. To create the body of water on Sungai Balui 37km upstream of Belaga, about 70,000 Ha of forest and cultivated fields would need to be submerged - reducing the states land area that can be used for agriculture. This would be the major source of impacts - both environmentally and socially. Before the area is flooded, some 50 million cubic meters of vegetation would have to be removed with all timbers being first logged, processed and sold. The EIA report revealed that flooding and removal / burning of such a huge amount of biomass would cause unavoidable significant impacts, even with rigorous environmental protection efforts. For example, the study revealed that forest biomass removal and construction of the reservoir would increase the sediment yield from the present 30 million tons to between 35 and 55 million tons. It also predicted that large scale land clearing would change the microclimate of the area, cause some air pollution, loss of biodiversity and loss of traditional lifestyle of local inhabitants.

 

The above are only examples of issues faced by Malaysia in the recent past.

 

This country report has attempted to present the current agro-environment situation in Malaysia especially as it relates to the various natural resource constraints posed to agriculture by both the agricultural and non-agricultural sectors in the country. Most of the quantitative information presented here were culled from publications and technical papers but the report also includes some of the everyday issues that have arisen in local newspapers in recent years and that are of importance to the average Malaysian.

 

Like the above issues that Malaysia has faced recently, there are many complex issues still remaining for policy planners in the trade-offs between quantifiable economic benefits gained from natural resource utilization (or abuse) and the unquantifiable costs (or benefits) from doing so. For example, Malaysia has an agreement with Singapore to sell the island state with a specified quantum of water for 100 years. To fulfill this agreement Malaysia would have to divert water from some of its rivers and/or build dams which would in turn require that their catchment areas be left relatively undisturbed for 100 years. As demand for these catchment lands for other uses / economic activities builds, on what basis are land-use and land pricing issues to be resolved?

 

It is hoped that the information in this report can contribute in some small way to answering such questions that will be increasingly raised in the future.

 

 

 

 

 

 

© Copyright ARAB 1995.
 

 

 

References                                                                         

 

 

Daniel J.G. and  Kulasingam A. (1974): Problems arising from large scale jungle clearing for agricultural use - The Malaysian Experience.

 

Dept of Environment:  Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) - Procedure and Requirements in Malaysia.

 

Guha, A. (1991): Computer Program Manual: Oil Palm Fertilizer Recommendation System. Agricultural Research & Advisory Bureau. Unpublished material.

 

Ling, A.H., Tan K.Y. and Syed Sofi Syed Omar (1979):  Preliminary observations in some post clearing changes in soil properties. Proc. Seminar on Soil Fertility and Management of Deforested Land.  Soc of Agr. Scientists, Sabah, Malaysia.

 

Nather Khan, Ismail Yaziz, Wan Norazmin Wan Sulaiman, Sreetharan Kanthaswamy (1992):  Freshwater Resources - A Background Paper for the National Conservation Strategy. WWF Malaysia, Institute of Advanced Studies (University Malaya) and Asian Wetland Bureau.

 

Pushparajah E. (1983): The Need for Soil Conservation in Malaysia. The Planter, 59,513-517.

 

Tang T.H., Manokaran N. and Blake G.J. (1979): The Status of  Hydrological Studies at the Forest Research  Institute of Malaysia. Malayan Forester Vol 42, No 2. 108-114.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Acknowledgement

 

The author would like to express his appreciation to Dr E Pushparajah of the Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia and to Prof TK Mukherjee, Deputy Dean at the Institute of Advanced Studies (University Malaya) for sharing their experiences on the management of soils and lands in Malaysia. Thanks are also due to the Dept's of Agriculture and Environment for provision of materials on their policies.

 

 

 

 

 

A P P E N D I X

 

 

 

PALM  OIL  MILL  WASTE

 

 

The wastes generated from a palm oil mill are:          

 

        i)         Liquid waste (Palm Oil Mill Effluent - POME)

       ii)         Solid wastes in the form of Fibre, Shell and Empty Fruit Bunches (EFB).

 

 

i.  Palm Oil Mill Effluent - POME

 

Large quantities of water are required for palm oil mill process operations.  About 1.5 to 2.0 tonnes of water (including boiler feed water) is required to process 1 ton of fresh fruit bunches (FFB).  A great proportion of the water used is discharged as waste water.  A small quantity of water (5%) is however also lost as steam / vapour.

 

The waste water is mainly generated from sterilization process, oil clarification process and hydrocyclone waste water in the following proportions:

 

                   i)          Sterilization Process     - 0.9T/ton  FFB

                   ii)         Oil Clarification Process            - 1.0T/ton  FFB

                   iii)         Hydrocyclone waste water        - 0.1T/ton  FFB

                                                                               ------------------------

                                                                      i.e.       2.0T/ton  FFB

 

The mixed effluent generated from the Mill, commonly known as Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME), require treatment.

 

Sterilization condensate and separator sludge are segregated and collected in different oil pits for residual recovery.  This recovered oil (commonly known as sludge oil) are of poorer quality in terms of fatty acids, peroxide values and metal contents.  It is not mixed or recycled with the production oil.  Instead these are sold as technical oils for non-edible applications such as lubrication of machines.

 

 

ii.  Fibre, Shell and Empty Fruit Bunches (EFB)

 

Solid wastes in the form of fibre, shell and empty fruit bunches (EFB) is normally incinerated for energy to power the boilers or recycled back into the plantation.

 

 

 

 

POME, when fresh, is a thick brown colloidal slurry of water containing oil and fine cellulosic fruit debris.  It is hot and acidic.

 

  POME  Composition

 

a) Water Content                             95 %    (Acidic)

b) Remaining Solid Materials            4 - 5 % 

                                           (50% in solution and 50% in suspension

                                             along with 0.5 - 1.0% of residual oil).

 

  POME  Characteristics                         

 

                               pH - 4.2 to 4.7

 

                               B.O.D.                         20,000  - 25,000 mg/l

                               Total  Solids                 35,000  - 40,000 mg/l

                               Suspended  Solids        18,000  - 20,000 mg/l

                               Total Nitrogen                   750  -      800 mg/l

 

       The POME is non toxic as no chemical is added in the oil extraction process.

 

It contains appreciable amount of metals which are useful as plant nutrient. (Refer Table 1)

 

 

 

Composition of  Oil Palm Sludge (% dry weight basis)

 

                   Crude Protein (N x 6.25)                                              10%

                   Crude Fibre                                                                  12%

                   Fatty Materials (soluble in diethyl ether)             20%

                   Ash                                                                              11%

                   Nitrogen Free extract (by difference)                 47%

                                                       TOTAL                                   100%

                  

                   The composition of Ash is minerals like Silica and

                   Salts - (Calcium & Magnesium)                                     

                   Phosphate - Phosphorus                                               0.25 -1%        

                  

                   Copper, Manganese and Zinc -                         25 to 80 ppm each

 

Nitrogen free extract composition is starch, sugar and other carbohydrates (other than cellulose) and lignin.

 

 

 

Table 1:  Characteristics  of   POME

Content

Units

Concentration

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

pH

 

4.2 - 4.7

 

 

BOD

mg/l

20000 - 25000

 

 

Tot Solids

mg/l

35000 - 40000

 

 

Suspend Solids

mg/l

18000 - 20000

 

 

Ammoniacal Nitrogen

mg/l

34 - 40

 

 

Tot Nitrogen

mg/l

750 - 800

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

METALS:

 

mg/l

 

 

Phosphorus

 

 18

 

 

Potassium

 

 2200

 

 

Calcium

 

 600

 

 

Magnesium

 

 400

 

 

Iron

 

 45.0

 

 

Manganese

 

 2.0

 

 

Copper

 

 0.9

 

 

Zinc

 

 2.3

 

 

 

 Source:  Ah - Ngan Ma,  PORIM, MALAYSIA

 

 

 

 

 

RUBBER  FACTORY   WASTE

 

 

 

The typical characteristics of rubber factory effluent are shown in Table 2.

 

 

Table 2:  Characteristics  of   Rubber  Effluent

               (mg/liter - mean values)

  

    Effluent  Source

pH

no units

BOD

COD

Tot N

NH4-

N

Suspend

Solids

Tot

Solids

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Block Rubber

5.7

1,747

2,740

147

66

237

1,915

Latex Concentrate

6.2

2,704

4,626

369

205

1,177

2,821

RSS Factory

4.9

2,893

3,300

 

10

140

3,745

Remilling Factory

6.2

814

900

 

15

350

480

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 Source:  Singham, G. (1982)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Agricultural   Research   &   Advisory   Bureau   [ARAB]

 

Planters Grounds, 3½  mls Kajang-Serdang Rd, Selangor 43000, Malaysia.

Tel: +60 (03) 8736-8490             Fax: +60 (03) 8736-8491/92 

Email: arabis@arabis.org                           www.arabis.org 

 

 

 

 

 

The content of this report represents our interpretation and analysis of information generally available to the public or released by responsible individuals in the subject companies, but is not guaranteed as to accuracy or completeness. It does not contain material provided to us in confidence by our clients. Reproduction or disclosure in whole or in part to other parties shall be made upon the written and express consent of ARAB.

 

©1995 ARAB. All rights reserved.